pollution from organic farms

Summary
     Israeli scientists measured amounts of nitrate in soil beneath crops that are grown with manure mixed with soil, and in soil below crops fertilized with liquid synthetic fertilizer. When roots of plants can't reach the nitrogen in the soil, it won't get absorbed into the root. Instead, it will get runoff from the soil into water ways. This increase in contamination is theorized to be a result of the compost with nitrogen in it being applied to early, before the plant is developed enough to absorb it. This study shows how neither system really works better than the other in stopping them from polluting. Also, neither of these systems are perfect.

Relevance
     Nitrogen is one of the key minerals that was talked about in the plant unit. All plants need some portion of nitrogen to survive. There is an abundance of nitrogen in the air as a gas. But as learned in this chapter, plants need to absorb it through there roots.

http://news.discovery.com/earth/plants/organic-farms-can-pollute-too-140221.htm

Unlocking the Mechanism Bacteria Use To 'Hack' Other Bacteria

Summary: 
Researchers have discovered the specific structure used by bacteria to transfer genetic material between one another. It is composed of two structures, one inside the inner membrane, and the other inside of the outer membrane, which are connected by stalks and form a structure resembling a pore. This discovery helps researchers to figure out how exactly bacteria can transfer genetic information, and holds the possibility of adapting this mechanism for use in other organisms, such as humans, to transfer beneficial DNA.

Relevance:
This research relates strongly to our bacteria unit, as it pertains to how specifically bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information. It also relates to how bacteria can spread their genes for resistance against specific antibiotics.

Source:
http://motherboard.vice.com/blog/unlocking-the-mechanism-used-by-bacteria-to-hack-other-bacteria

Herbivores Can Offset Loss of Plant Biodiversity in Grassland

Source: University of Minnesota 
Date: 3/9/14
http://phys.org/news/2014-03-herbivores-offset-loss-biodiversity-grassland.html


Summary: 
Two impacts often controlled by humans—being fertilized and being eaten—can combine to benefit biodiversity, according to researchers Elizabeth Borer and Eric Seabloom.

Scientists at 40 sites set up research plots with and without added fertilizer and with and without fences (to keep out herbivores). Following that, every year they measured plant growth, the amount of light reaching the ground, and number of species of plants growing in the plots.

The researchers found that fertilizing reduced the number of plant species in the plots, because species less able to tolerate a lack of light were covered by other, faster-growing plants. Additionally, the removal of vegetation by herbivores increased the amount of light that reached the ground, and thus plant species diversity increased. 

Relevance:

This article relates to many units, including ecosystems, evolution, and plants. As Global Warming poses an increasingly devastating threat to ecosystems, it is important to learn what conditions we as humans can control that will help them survive. It relates to evolution because it shows that the plants that grew faster were able to retain more light, and therefore had a better chance of surviving and reproducing, illustrating natural selection. It relates to the plants unit because it deals with the conditions that influence plant growth. Overall, it is important because humans are changing both herbivore distribution and the supply of nutrients like nitrogen or phosphorus. Understanding the connection between nutrients, herbivores and plant growth is critical to feeding a growing worldwide human population and to protecting threatened species and ecosystems. 

Science Takes On a Silent Invader

Author: Robert H. Boyle
Published: February 24 2014
Link: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/25/science/science-takes-on-a-silent-invader.html?ref=bacteria

Summary:
Invasive species of mussels, called zebra and quagga, are out competing native mussels, making them dangerous to native mussels and the environment in general To solve this problem, Daniel P. Molloy was enlisted. Molloy had worked on a project similar to this in the past, to eliminate both black flies and mosquito larvae, without harming the rest of the environment. To solve this problem, Molloy searched for a bacteria that could kill just the black fly and mosquito larvae. After many years of research, he finally found it in a stagnate pool in Israel, and it was rolled out to the mass markets, and currently is in widespread use. Molloy followed a similar process to solve the problem of the mussels, and currently he has finally found a bacteria that contains a compound which harms only zebra mussels. Currently this material is being evaluated for wide-spread use, but the evaluation seems to be going well.

Relevance: This article connects to our bacteria unit through it use of bacteria, and the connections to their effects. In addition, it connects to the unit on ecosystems due to how an invasive species is out competing another, and how this is affecting the environment.

'Super Bacteria' clean up after oil spills

'Super Bacteria' clean up after oil spills

Summary:
       Recently in Norway, researchers tested the effectiveness of bacteria in cleaning up oil spills. This method of natural cleansing is called bioremediation. They applied different conditions to each experimental clean up, and each experiment lasted one month. First, researchers simulated tides by replacing seawater, ensuring that there was an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients. After a month, only small amounts of contaminants had been removed. Other variables they tested that had little effect on results were increasing the tidal interval from three to twelve hours, increasing the water temperature, and reducing the concentration of oxygen. However, one environmental change was made that vastly increased the effectiveness of the bacteria. When extra nutrients were added, and the bacteria were able to work in areas of high concentrations of phosphates and nitrogen, they were able to work significantly more effectively. This study will certainly be useful when a future oil spill occurs.

Connection:
       This article connects to what we learned about bacteria in our unit on Microbes. Specifically, it relates to our study of bacterial decomposers and the process of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the use of bacteria, plants, and enzymes to clean up pollution, such as the pollution caused by an oil spill. Oil spills can be very harmful to an ecosystem, and bioremediation is needed in order to remove contaminants that have settled into the soil. In the future, scientists are hoping to develop capsules that will provide the nutrients as and when needed to provide ideal growing environments.

Citation:
Author: Christina Benjaminsen
Date of Publication: March 10, 2014
URL: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140310090615.htm

Mechanism of Bacteria's Genetic Information Sharing System Discovered

Summary          Bacterial Type IV Secretion is how bacteria are able to transfer material outside their cell wall. This is also how they share genetic information with each other. Until recently, the specific mechanism that controlled this specific secretion was unknown. As this type of secretion can pass genetic info between organisms, it can also spread an antibiotic resistant gene to others, therefore passing along the resistance to certain medicines. Now that this structure is understood, the field of medicine will use it to try and prevent bacteria from exchanging these resistant genes among each other. Other fields of biology will be able to use this new information to improve how they use bacteria to genetically modify other cells by using them to transfer information them genetically modify other cells by using bacteria to move information. Whatever the future use, this discovery is a breakthrough in understanding bacteria better.


Connection          This article relates to our unit on microorganisms, specifically bacteria. We learned how bacteria are able to transfer material between each other with plasmids, but we never learned exactly how. This discovery will tell us exactly how. We also talked before about genetic modification and how scientists are using bacteria in that process, and this article touches upon that as well. Another topic we talked about was antibiotic resistance and how that gene spreads through natural selection. This article describes another way that those resistant genes could be spread; through Type IV Secretion.

Website URL: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140309150544.htm
Citation: University College London. "Spread of antibiotic resistance understoon by unravelling bacterial secretion system." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 9 March 2014.

Picky Bacteria

Summary: Scientists have tested bacteria that help clean up oil spills. They mimicked the tides, the temperature, and a lot of other factors, and they have decided that this bacteria needs encouragement to thrive, and break down the oil.
Connection: this article related to the unit because we studied about bacteria and how it is sometimes used to help fix natural disasters.

http://phys.org/news/2014-03-super-bacteria-oil.html
SINTEF

Older Trees Grow Faster

Summary: A study published in the magazine Nature showed that, despite popular belief, most older trees gain more mass each year than younger trees. In the study of 403 species and 673,046 trees, 97% of the cases showed the result that the older trees gained more mass. Although these trees add more mass, they are less efficient than the younger trees. The fact that bigger trees have more leaves makes up for the decline in efficiency. The leaves are so relevant to this study because they are the sections of the tree that is mainly photosynthetic. Carbon, which is part of the product of photosynthesis, is the main source of mass in trees. The big trees also have more surface area on which wood is added each year in rings.

Connection: This article connects to our unit on plants, and more specifically their growth. There is also a connection to the unit on photosynthesis and cellular respiration. There are references to the growth of tree rings and leaf function in the article, both of which were topics in this past unit. 


Author: Jeff Tollefson
Date: January 14 2014
URL: http://www.nature.com/news/tree-growth-never-slows-1.14536

Click here for article

Campus researchers hope to provide foundation for better bacteria-resistant technology

Campus researchers hope to provide foundation for better bacteria-resistant technology

http://www.dailycal.org/2014/03/07/campus-researchers-hope-provide-foundation-better-bacteria-resistant-technology/

Summary:

     Researches from UC Berkley grouped together to find out how Staphylococcus cells attach themselves to different metal objects. In order to do this, they set up metal nano-structures and came up with methods to observe how these bacteria cells attached to the different metal nano-structures. They found that tubular metallic structures are where the bacteria have the highest survival rate but on smooth flat surfaces, they found that these bacteria have the lowest survival rate. Staph bacteria are one of the most common sources of contamination in patients despite all of the strict sterilization regulations in hospital. They have found that around 1.2 million people contract Staph bacteria in hospitals each year. Staph bacteria is still a prevalent threat due to the fact it attaches to so many surfaces in the hospital and can cause many contagious infections. Even though recent research suggests that bacterial bonds are sensitive to different types of nano-structures, the specific method of adhesion is still a mystery to researchers. If researchers and scientists can find out how bacteria bind at molecular levels, they can also find out how they attach to these surfaces. The best part of the research is that it is developing a resistance to bacteria without using antibiotics which means that they don't have to worry about bacteria becoming resistant to any antibiotics.

Relevance:

     This relates to our Microbes unit, specifically bacteria and antibiotics. We learned that Bacteria can be inhibited by household substances but this is another way to inhibit bacteria without the risk of overusing antibiotics. This is also an example of how we can inhibit or develop resistance to certain bacteria. We learned how bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics in our Evolution unit and by using this type of bacterial resistance, we can create a resistance in which we won't have to worry about overuse since bacteria won't have any antibiotics to adapt to.

Sponges Likely Paved the Way For All Life on Earth

By Jennifer Viegas

March 9, 2014

Summer:

Sponges could have been one of the key organisms that helped turn the Earth from an anaerobic planet to an aerobic planet. They caused this change from their appetite. As sponges feed they filter out parts of organic matter from the water. Going back 700 million years ago when the first sponges emerged, the organic matter would have included dead microbial matter. This matter consumes oxygen. With the sponge getting rid of some of the matter, the oxygen became more abundant. As the oxygen levels rose, it set up the environment for more complex organisms to form. DNA analysis proves that sponges emerged 700 million years ago, when there was very little oxygen in the water. Over the span of the next 100 millions years the oceans became very rich in oxygen, supporting the sponge theory even more. It is known that terrestrial species were derived from marine species, tying all complex life back to sponge for it's change in the environment.

Relevance:
This article relates to unit 8 on microbes. It talks about the formation to obtain a very high oxygen level instead of carbon dioxide, unlike Venus and Mars which are uninhabited because of those conditions. Sponges were one of the main contributors to aerobic life, which had started in the ocean, and have been found in stromatolites. It also relates to DNA analysis and how accurate scientist can pin point certain time periods to prove how certain species effected Earth's environment. Therefore it ties into the evolution of the Earth and how no matter however small and simple an organism can be, it can leave a monumental impact.

URL: http://news.discovery.com/earth/oceans/sponges-likely-paved-the-way-for-all-life-on-earth-140309.htm

Fungus Threatens Top Banana in Jordan and Mozambique

                           

Author: Declan Butler

Date: December 11th, 2013

Link: http://www.nature.com/news/fungus-threatens-top-banana-1.14336

                                                            Summary:

            A type of fungus that kills the main variety of export banana, mainly Cavendish bananas, has been found in Jordan and Mozambique. This disease is caused by strains of a soil fungus called Fusarium oxysporum. These strains spread very slowly, but are almost impossible to eliminate in the soil. This fungus was first discovered in Asia, and soon spread to countries including Taiwan, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Nobody is quite sure as to how the fungus arrived in Jordan or Mozambiue, but it may have been brought over by immigrants from Asia that brought contaminated soil. There have been limitations as to genetically engineering the banana to become fully resistant to this fungus, but researchers have discovered that the wild Asian banana Musa acuminata malaccensis seems to be resistant. They are now experimenting and putting  its genes into the Cavendish banana. 

                                                   Relevance:

                      This relates to out study of microbes. specifically fungi. We learned that fungi can be harmful to some plants and be in symbiotic relationships with others. This is an example of how a fungus can harm a plant. This article also relates to our study of molecular genetics. We learned about how organisms can be genetically modified to improve upon their quality or to gain a resistance to a specific disease. In this case, researchers are trying to genitcally modify the Cavendish banana in order to make it resistant to the fungus that it is facing. 

Antibiotics in Animals Tied to Risk of Human Infection

Article written by  SABRINA TAVERNISE

Published: January 27, 2014

Link: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/antibiotics-in-animals-tied-to-risk-of-human-infection.html?_r=0

Summary:

    A federal analysis of 30 antibiotics used in animal feed said that most of them largely contributed to the problem of having antibiotic resistant bacteria infecting people. This analysis was conducted by the Food and Drug Administration. Some of the scientists from the Food Drug Administration studied 30 penicillin and tetracycline additives in animal feed. These scientists found that 18 of these animal feeds pose a high risk of exposing people to antibiotic resistant bacteria through food. The other 12 animal feeds did not have enough data to judge those animal feeds. Feeding animals with antibiotics is becoming a big problem as 2 million Americans fall sick and 23,000 die from antibiotic resistant bacteria every year.

    Scientists believe that this bacteria problem is caused by farmers. The farmers feed the animals small amounts of antibiotics and keep them in crowded conditions. This causes the bacteria's resistance, which will then affect humans as they eat the meat. Thus, the FDA tried to control the amount of antibiotics used to raise the animals since the 1970's. Recently, the FDA has taken action and banned the use of several antibiotics to raise animals. Last year, the FDA is trying to discriminate the use of antibiotics on all animals. For example, they banned the use of cephalosporins in animals. Cephalosporins are used to treat pneumonia and strep throat in people. The FDA believes that its current strategy of not using antibiotics to raise animals is the most efficient and effective way to change the use of these products in animal agriculture.

Relevance:

This article is relevant to the studies in class because this article discusses how bacteria become antibiotic resistant and its hazards. In Chapter 16, we learned about how antibiotics are effective against bacteria. However, an overuse of the antibiotic, such as constantly feeding animals with it, can lead to mutations in the bacteria that enables it to become resistant towards antibiotics. This is hazardous since a person infected with that certain type of bacteria will have a hard time recovering since the antibiotics would be ineffective.

Giant Virus Resurrected From Permafrost After 30,000 Years

Summary: Recently a giant virus has been resurrected from Siberian permafrost that has been buried for 30,000 years. Although the virus only infects single-celled organisms, there is now a possibility that warming climate and exploration in Siberia could release ancient viruses (example: smallpox). Since Neanderthals and humans lived in Siberia not too long ago ( as recently as 28,00 years ago), this means that diseases that plagued both species could still be there. Researches wanted to find another example of an unknown pathogen so they looked at some permafrost samples taken from Kolyma in the Russian Far East in 2000 and put the samples in contact with amoebas. Some amoebas burst and died, and when investigated scientist found that the cause was an ancient virus that infects only amoebas.

There are differing opinions on ancient virus's potential harm to humans. Jean-Michel Claverie, a bioinformatics researcher at Aix-Marseille University in France says,"'... if they [the viruses] have been extinct for a long time, then our immune system is no longer prepared to respond to them."' Arguing that there is no potential harm,  Curtis Suttle, a marine virologist at the University of British Columbia in Canada says,"'...the probability that viral pathogens of humans are abundant enough, and would circulate extensively enough to affect human health, stretches scientific rationality to the breaking point."'

Relevance: This article relates to our microbes unit, and more specifically to viruses and pathogens. A pathogen is a bacteria, virus, or another microorganism that can cause disease. The two newly discovered viruses that are mentioned in the summary above are pathogens to single-celled organisms and amoebas, so they are no harm to us. However, they still cause concern because this discovery proved that ancient viruses can be resurrected so the resurrection of an ancient virus that is a pathogen to humans (like smallpox) is a possibility.

Author: Tia Ghose
Date Published: March 4, 2014
URL: http://www.foxnews.com/science/2014/03/04/giant-virus-resurrected-after-30000-years/

Scientists shocked to find coral reef in murky waters off Iraq

Scientists shocked to find coral reef in murky waters off Iraq

Summary: 

   Recently, scientists discovered approximately 11 square miles of coral reef off the Iraqi coast. The conditions in the waters off the coast are harsh due to pollution flowing into the Persian Gulf from the the Shatt al-Arab river. The river carries sediment and often oil into the gulf. These pollutants are thoroughly churned up by currents and winds.

  The discovery of more than half a dozen marine species in these suspended-sediment rich waters is shocking because scientists formerly believed it was impossible for delicate organisms such as coral to survive in such unsuitable conditions. Apparently coral are better at adapting than originally thought by marine biologists. There were stony corals, sun coral and octocorals found in the reef. Among the reef were not only corals but also sponges. To find sponges in the waters off the Iraqi Coast was equally surprising as finding corals. Sponges too were thought, until now, to be too delicate to survive in high sediment and nutrient environments. 

  Scientists will continue to study the reefs near the cost of Iraq and other "extreme reef systems"  in order to understand possible adaptations which marine species may undergo in the future. With earth's climate  changing, biologists are curious about the ways in which animals will adapt to deal with these environmental alterations. 

Relevance: 

  This article is relevant to multiple units which have studied so far this year. It is relevant to our ecosystems unit because the main emphasis of the article is that, despite the severe conditions of it's environment, coral and sponges have managed to thrive. Our ecosystems unit discussed pollution and the effects it can have on the organisms in a habitat. Also, these reefs are helping scientists learn about how marine species will adapt to climate change. Global warming and the greenhouse effect were also discussed in our ecosystems unit. 

  Another unit to which this article relates is our evolution of life unit. This article is relevant to the unit because the coral and sponges in the reef have managed to adapt to sediment rich conditions which would normally make the coast uninhabitable to them. Our unit on the evolution of life covered adaptations which organisms use to survive in conditions which were once may not have been favorable. 

  The final unit which relates to this article is our microbes unit. Because coral reefs are involved in a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthella algae. The zooxanthella live with coral polyps. The algae provide the coral polyps with nutrients from photosynthesis while the polyps supply the algae with carbon dioxide and other necessary substances. We covered protists such as the zooxanthella algae in our microbes unit. Since the article is mostly about coral then the symbiotic relationship of coral and zooxanthella is relevant. 

Author: Karen Kaplan

Date Published: 3/8/2014

URL: http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-coral-reef-iraq-persian-gulf-20140307,0,614996.story#axzz2vTLgoHHE

New "Pithovirus" Found in Siberia

Mayank Mali

Summary:
        researchers from the Information Génomique et Structurale laboratory have recently discovered a new type of virus named "Pithovirus" or binomial Pithovirus sibericum in the frozen ground of the autonomous region of Chukotka in north-eastern Siberia. The Pithovirus has been buried for over 30,000 years, and is harmless to human and animals. This virus is part of the group of giant viruses,  including Pandovirus and Mimivirus, which typically have diameters exceeding 0.5 microns and infect amoeba including Acanthamoeba. These giant viruses also have large genomes usually the same as or more than those of bacteria, compared to more common viruses such as AIDS and influenza with smaller genomes. 

        Initially, Pithovirus has been thought to be part of the Pandovirus family due to similar size and amphora-like shape. However genome and protein analysis has confirmed that the Pithovirus genome has only about 500 genes compared to Pandovirus' 2,500 genes, and only one or two proteins comprising the Pithovirus is common to the Pandovirus. Also, in order to replicate, the Pithovirus replication process takes place in the cytoplasm of an host amoeba and is less dependent on the amoeba's cellular mechanisms, while the Pandovirus replication process takes place inside the nucleus of the host amoeba and uses the amoeba's mechanisms more intricately. 

        In final, the Pithovirus has been deemed its own group of virus of giant viruses, and thus there are now three distinct groups of giant viruses known to date. The discovery of Pithovirus also indicates that amphora-shaped viruses are as diverse as the most-widespead-to-date icosahedral-shaped viruses. This study has additionally proved that viruses can 'survive' in permafrost over large geological times, which legitimizes the possible re-appearance of other viruses thought to be eradicated.

Relevance:
        The study of the Pithovirus relates to the unit about microbes. Just as in the curricula, this article refers to the way a virus reproduces inside of a living host cell, using the host mechanisms to create new duplications of the viral DNA by DNA polymerase. In the case of the Pithovirus, it replicates inside an amoeba. This study also refers to the 'life cycle' of viruses through the lytic and lysogenic cycles. The study so far has established that Pithovirus in particular uses the lytic cycle in amoebas, but for a virus to reproduce by the lysogentic cycle in a eukaryote is not rare.


Author: Le Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS)
Published: March 4, 2014
URL: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140304071433.htm

Diease, not Climate Change, Fueling Frog Declines in the Andes

Author: San Francisco State University

Date: December 13, 2013

Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/12/131213094802.htm

Summary: 

Climate Change is widely believed as the primary culprit behind the rapid decline of frog populations in the Andes Mountains. But the recent study finds that the decline in frog populations is actually the result of a deadly fungus. The habitat for the frogs is also optimal for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a harmful pathogen which causes chtridiomycosis, a disease which has led the recent decline or extinction of 200 frog species worldwide. Researchers have measured temperatures at which conditions are optimal for growth and spread of Bd and found that the highland frogs' habitat lay within the range. They believe Bd was likely introduced to the Andes by human activity. Vance Vredenbrug, an associate professor of biology at San Francisco State University, who studies the impact of Bd suggests that one way to prevent the spread of the disease is to stop the transport of amphibians across borders. His research shows that some species of frogs are relatively immune to this disease while others are susceptible to it. Future research on Bd will be to learn how these species can escape the harmful effects of Bd and use that knowledge to save other amphibians. 

Connection: 

This article connects with our recent unit on Microbes. We learned about organisms such as fungi. We learned about different types of fungi, their functions, and the general structure of fungi. Some fungi are decomposers, some are symbionts, some are predators, and some are parasites. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is a parasitic fungi which has caused large declines/extinctions of frog species. This fungal parasite is also a pathogen that causes the disease chtridiomycosis, an infectious disease among amphibians. This disease has led to great decline in populations and some extinctions in species. Some populations withstand these effects which suggests that natural selection favored the traits which were immune to the harmful effects of the disease. 

30,000 Year Old Giant Virus Found

 

30,000 Year Old Giant Virus Found

 

Summary: A 30,000 year old giant virus was dug up by scientists in thawing permafrost in a remote area of Siberia. It has been named Pithovirus sibericum, this ancient virus is harmless to humans and instead attacks amoebas. Because the virus is still capable of killing organisms and was discovered in thawing permafrost, the scientists who found the virus warn that this could be a danger to human health in the future. This is because this virus shows that other viruses from past global epidemics that were thought to have been eradicated, like smallpox which reproduces similarly to the Pithovirus may be able to survive in places like permafrost for years and then reemerge later on, causing more possible global epidemics in the future. The discovery of this ancient virus shows how little we humans know about the biodiversity of microorganisms, especially in exploring new environments. The discovery of the Pithovirus sibericum has also shown the existence of three families of giant viruses.

 

 

Connection: This article relates to the microbes unit, particularly viruses and their impact on organisms. Although this virus does not attack human cells, it is still capable of entering amoeba cells, multiplying, and ultimately killing the amoeba even after being in dormancy for about 30,000 years. This ancient virus also shows that other viruses that were once thought to have been eradicated are capable of going into dormancy, then reemerging in the future and infecting organisms once more. This means viral diseases like smallpox, which reproduces very similarly to the Pithovirus, may be able to reemerge and once again spread through the human population. This articles relates to viruses and how they are able to survive so they can continue to go through reproduction in the future. 



Author: Jethro Mullen
Date of Publication: March 6, 2014
URL: http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/05/world/europe/siberia-giant-virus-discovered/

Farmers wary about alarms, actions raised by Lake Erie report on algae bloom

Farmers wary about alarms, actions raised by Lake Erie report on algae bloom

Summary:

       In 2011, there was a record algae bloom on Lake Erie that closed beaches and caused fish die-offs and water restrictions. Therefore, the International Joint Commission, a U.S.-Canadian advisory board for Great Lakes issues decided that phosphorus flowing from sources such as farms and fertilized lawns must be dramatically reduced. The main source of the nutrient problems in the lake is from farms where manure on ice/snow covered ground and fertilizer applications in wet springs cause runoff. The commissions want to reduce nutrient loads by 40%, especially in the spring where the farmers tend to use fertilizer the most. However, this could increase prices at the supermarket. Nevertheless, the International Joint Commission still believes that the cause is worth the increased prices. This is due to the massive algae bloom of Lake Erie in 2011. It spread over 2,000 square miles of the lack and was visible from outer space. Since Lake Erie also happened to be the shallowest of the Great Lakes, this caused the problem to grow even bigger for many “dead zones” (low-oxygen) were created. The algae that caused the bloom are a microcystis algae that releases a toxin potentially harmful to humans and wildlife. In fact, in 2011, the toxin reached 224 times the ‘safe’ level. Fortunately, many farmers are beginning to reduce their tillage (agitation of the soil), which dramatically reduces runoff.  

Relevance:

The article relates strongly to unit eight, microbes. Algae blooms is a serious and deadly problem throughout the world. Farmers use fertilizer to make their plant grow faster and stronger. However, if this fertilizer runs-off the land and into a lake, such as Lake Erie, then the fertilizer causes huge problems. Just like plants, algae thrive off of nitrogen and phosphorus, making them grow faster. Because they can multiple extremely fast, the microbes can cover great distances in a short amount of time. If there is too much algae, then they can block out the sunlight and the oxygen (caused by the decomposing bacteria), thus creating a dead zone. In this ‘zone,’ no fish, or aquatic insects can survive. Therefore, it is critical for us to prevent algae blooms before they happen by limiting the amount of runoff.

Citation:

Author:

Keith Matheny

Date of Publication:

February 28, 2014

Article Link:

http://www.freep.com/article/20140227/NEWS06/302270201/lake-erie-algae-bloom-phosphorus-manure-fertilizer

3-Parent Embryos

Summary:
U.S. Health officials are considering allowing a trial of using 3 people's DNA to create a embryo. The reason for a 3 parent embryo is mitochondrial disorder. Some of the illnesses caused by mitochondrial disorders are muscular dystrophy and respiratory problems. The mitochondria is the power house of the cell, and if there are problems in it they chances of having medical problems increases. Mitochondrial disorders are inherited from the mother. When a egg is fertilized the embryo gets the fathers DNA, the mothers DNA, and the mothers mitochondrial DNA. The trial would take the parents nuclear DNA, and a donors mitochondrial DNA and insert it into the women's egg. Britain became the first country to start allowing this techniques since 1 out of every 6,500 babies born in the United Kingdom are born with a mitochondrial disorders. Some people have doubts though, they feel that if we start engineering babies we will not stop until we have created the perfect baby. Scientist say that will not happen. They also say the risk for this trial is very small, and the rewards are very large. A FDA, Food and Drug Administration, administrative panel reviewed the trial over 2 days. They disused the controls,how to monitory the embryos during their growth, and who would oversee the trials. No decisions were made.

Connection:
This connects to our biology class because it touches on the units of cells, heredity, molecular genetics, and evolution. It connects to cells because the reason behind mitochondrial disorders it abnormalities in the mitochondria. It connects to heredity because mitochondrial disorders are passed on from the mother. It also connects to molecular genetics because the whole point of the trail is too try and alter genes on a molecular level. It also connects to evolution because if the trail goes through it would be a form of human induced evolution. It also connects to when we have discussed genetically modified organisms. The embryo would be a genetically modified organism. But like we discussed in class there are some who think that it is a bad idea and others who think it is a good idea. That is why the trials have not began, because of the controversy. It all comes down to whether the human race thinks it is a good idea or a bad one.

Source:
Matt Smith
February 27, 2014

http://us.cnn.com/2014/02/26/health/ivf-mitochondria/?iref=obinsite

Deadliest Mushroom Is Spreading Worldwide

Author: Sheila M. Eldred

Date of Publication: February 10, 2014

Link: http://news.discovery.com/earth/plants/deadliest-mushroom-in-the-world-is-spreading-140210.htm

Summary:

       While Amanita phalloides, or the death cap, may try to look as innocent and delicious as the edible mushrooms it grows around, its contains a dark secret.  The mushrooms contain enough toxicity have the ability to inflict quite the amount of damage to the human body which lead to the death of the consumer.  Due to its fast reproduction through the use of spores, the death cap has now become a huge invasive species on every continent except Antarctica.   In the United States, it has spread across the East and the West Coasts and appears to have adapted to living on certain plants such as oak trees and native pines.  The growth of the fungus currently seems to be converging inward and travelling south towards Mexico.

       Luckily, an antidote has seemed to be discovered by a man named S. Todd Mitchell of Dominican Hospital of Santa Cruz and his colleagues.  Created from milk thistle, the drug has saved over 60 patients who all had proper kidney functions and took the drug within 96 hours of digesting the mushroom.  After the drug is injected, it blocks the receptors that signal for the toxins to go into the liver.  The toxins then are forced to stay in the bloodstream which allows the kidneys to expel the toxins faster.  While there are virtually no side effects from the drug, Mitchell still needs more patients before he can publish the research.

Connection:

                How this connects to our biology class is the fact that Amanita phalloides is a fungus and that it uses many of the ideas or processes that we talked about in class.  First off, we discussed how fungi are never autotrophs and are usually the decomposers.  The fact that this fungus has been found on trees might lead to the conclusion that it is a decomposer or is in a parasitic relationship with the different trees.  The next idea that was said during class was about how the fungi make tons of spores and reproduce fast.  Amanita phalloides spreads quickly due to the fact that it makes so many spores which all have almost the same potentials.  Finally, a third idea that was talked about during class was the idea that antibiotics have no effect against these fungi and so other cures or treatments need to be found.  In this case, Mitchell created this drug without side effects so far that was able to treat the fungi and save patients.

Fighting for survival in the gut: Unravelling the hidden variation in bacteria

Link
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140306191438.htm
This article was written by the Instituto Gulbekian de Ciencia and published on March 6, 2014.

Summary
Three research groups from the Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciencia collaborated to find out for the first time how E. coli adapts and evolves in the mouse intestine. The researchers fed the mice E. coli. and observed a large genetic variation over time. By analyzing the mice's feces, the data indicated that many E. coli with different advantageous mutations rapidly emerged and were competing for fixation in the gut. The researchers genetically tested the E. coli strains to identify the genes responsible for the bacteria's adaptations. The results show that certain genes were shut off to allow E. coli to grow better in the presence of molecules produced by the mouse intestine. There were also changes in the genes regulating anaerobic respiration. More importantly, the researchers discovered that the same mutations appeared in various E. coli populations evolving in different mice. This evolution of E. coli through natural selection also happens in human intestines. Isabel Gordo, the leader of the study says that their investigation will make way for interesting research studies in the future about evolution in healthy and nonhealthy hosts. The researchers were surprised at the speed at which evolution took place in the gut and how consistent the evolutionary pattern was for E. coli. They say it's necessary for scientists to move away from studies on the Petri dish and experiment on vertebrates, which could help find new ways of fighting diseases.

Relevance
This article relates to what we learned in the pre-lab of the term lab report- bacteria become antibiotic resistant through natural selection. From our textbook, we read that a population of bacteria could have genetic variation through transformation, conjugation, or transduction. Due to genetic variation in a bacterial colony, some may carry a mutation that causes them to be resistant to a certain antibiotic. Overtime, each new generation of bacteria has a higher proportion of individuals with the resistant trait. In the same manner, a population of bacteria such as E. coli evolves in the mouse intestine by the same process. There was a large genetic diversity of E. coli with different advantageous mutations. The difference was that the environment wasn't necessarily selecting for mutations causing the bacteria to be antibiotic resistant. Additionally, the article says that the evolution of E. coli happens in human intestines. In the Microbe Zoo activity, we know that E. coli does live in human intestines and provides vitamin K and some vitamin B for us.  

Shiva Mudide
March 2014
Period 1 Biomedia

Summary:

A group of ecologists set out to see how wind moves pollen through isolated patches of habitat carved into a longleaf pine plantation, by staining pollen with florecent die that would drift with the wind much like native pollen. This "pollen" was inserted into boxes mounted on poles, then released as the scientists monitored local wind conditions. They were able to locate more than 80 percent of the fake pollen, which glowed under the ultraviolet light at night, discovering that both wind and the corridors between the patches of habitat matter to pollen dispersal in the longleaf pine forest. The paths of this glowing pollen were matched with output from a computer model to produce the first accurate picture of how wind moves pollen through corridors linking two patches of habitat. Conservation biologists have wanted to build conservation corridors to link isolated patches of protected land, as they are designed to improve conditions for uncommon native species living in separated habitats. Small populations in these "islands" of habitat may be killed by storms or disease. They may lack genetic diversity and be prone to inbreeding, unable to reach new habitat. The study demonstrates that influences on wind-dispersed species are more complex than previously thought. Furthermore, a research group of meteorologists and ecologists found that corridors increased the movement of wind and of their glowing artificial pollen. When the scientists counted newly dispersed plants over the 12-year experiment, they found that a corridor linking two patches of land indeed promotes the diversity of plants dispersed by wind - especially if the corridor is oriented roughly parallel to the prevailing winds. Wind speeds up in certain areas of the patches, creating an uplift of pollen, which is important because the wind tends to be faster higher above the ground. The results are especially relevant to threatened Midwestern ecosystems like grasslands, prairies and savannas, where big bluestem and milkweed are two of many native plants that loft their pollen on the wind. In conservation science, it is often assumed that wind-dispersed pollen can go everywhere, but that's not true. Wind direction, and the shape of the habitat, control where pollen goes.

Connection:

This article greatly connects with the current biology curriculum. In the status quo, we are learning how gymnosperms and angiosperms pollinate differently. Gymnosperms are wind pollinators with cones, like the longleaf pines tests in this study. They produce massive amounts of pollen that is transported by wind to other trees. The article outlines a study that shows that pollen isn’t just simply spread out in random directions, but wind direction, and the shape of the habitat. The problem is that these plants are many times spread out and isolated from each other. Thus, conservation biologists have suggested implementing corridors to ease the passage of pollen. This would allow gymnosperms to pollinate more like the angiosperms we learned about. Many angiosperms pollinate use vector pollination, that is, they expend more energy creating attractive flowers, rather than large amounts of pollen. This is so that they will attract animal pollinators such as bats and bees to pollinate their flowers for them. By implementing corridors, pollen will have a more direct route of travel to other plants, similar to the vector pollination used by angiosperms.

Author: Ellen Damschen

Published: February 24, 2014

URL: http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=130515&org=NSF&from=news

Algae explosion in Lake Erie is posing danger to fish, tourism and locals

By: Maryanne Moll
Published: March 2, 2014

Akhila Sonti 

Summary: High levels of algae growth caused by phosphorous runoffs turned the Lake Erie green . The algae growth is harming marine wildlife and water quality. The water quality in Lake Erie has been declining for the past few decades. Although the attempt to vigorously control phosphorous runoff  and prevent high algae growth in Lake Erie succeeded in the 1980s, algae growth is now in much higher levels and is a threat to the marine ecosystem as well as tourism.  Fertilizer application along with snow melt and rainfall is what causes high amounts of phosphorous runoffs in the lake. In urban areas construction activities, sewer overflow, lawn and garden activities, etc. are also factors that contribute to the increase in phosphorous levels in the lake. Along with all of these factors, warmer climate also contributes to algal growth in the lake. Fish in the lake are greatly affected by the increasing amounts of algae because algae takes up oxygen in the water which fish need to breathe. Even people that used to enjoy fishing, boating and water sports in Lake Erie can be impacted by the toxins present in the water. The drinking water in the area is also very unsafe. Lake Erie is one the the Great Lakes. They make up the largest freshwater ecosystem on earth and the Great Lakes basin is home to more than 45 million people in the U.S. providing food and fresh water for many generations. But increasing industrialization have greatly impacted the water quality of the Great Lakes, mostly Lake Erie. In 1972, an agreement was signed by the U.S. and Canada to reduce runoffs into the lake and take up a major lake-cleanup project which was a success with the cleanup in the 1980s. In 2012, a new agreement was signed with annexes that addressed new, current challenges posed to Lake Erie and its wildlife. The U.S. and Canada are taking action and addressing this issue effectively. 

http://www.techtimes.com/articles/3958/20140302/algae-explosion-in-lake-erie-is-posing-danger-to-fish-tourism-and-locals.htm

Relevance: We learned all about different types of algae in our Microbes unit. We learned that algal blooms can impact wildlife and other factors in a major way which we can clearly see with the problem posed here. We also learned why algal blooms occur and the different types. Harmful algae also bloom during the warmer seasons and with current climate change and the warm temperatures, the growth of harmful algae is favored over the growth of non-harmful algae. As they reach the surface of the marine ecosystem, they absorb all the sunlight which causes a further increase in the water's temperature and additional algae growth. We also talked about how the harmful algae use up all the oxygen, leaving very little for the fish to use and survive and how the algae uses up sunlight which doesn't allow the plants in the bottom of the marine ecosystem to go through photosynthesis and survive. 

Deadliest Mushroom is Spreading World Wide

Connor Cates
8 March, 2013
Period 1

Summary
The incredibly deadly mushroom has spread to every continent except Antarctica as an invasive species originally from Europe. The Death Cap mushroom often grown near safe and edible mushrooms, and looks like a good candidate to cook in a meal, but is very toxic. According to Adams, the spores spread "like glitter at a kid's glitter party." In the United states, the mushroom has adapted to live on oak and native pine trees. It has spread along both the East and West coasts and has been indicating that it is spreading south towards Mexico. But the good news is an ongoing clinical trial may have found an antidote to the deadly mushroom. The drug made in the Dominican Hospital in Santa Cruz has treated over 60 patients. The drug is derived from milk thistle, and those who have started on the drug within 96 hours of ingesting the mushroom have all survived as long as they did not have a previous kidney problem

Connection
This connects to what we've been learning in evolution and adaptations, along with ecology and invasive species. The Death Cap mushroom has evolved to look like and live around edible mushrooms to blend in, but with the toxin that prevents animals from eating them, and surviving. It also has adapted recently to live on native tree species as it has invaded ecosystems around the world.

Author: Sheila M. Eldred
Published: Feb 10, 2014
URL: http://news.discovery.com/earth/plants/deadliest-mushroom-in-the-world-is-spreading-140210.htm

Science Takes On a Silent Invader

Caroline Maxwell
7 March 2014
Period 1
Published: 24 February 2014

Summary: In 1991, a species of mussels were introduced in the United States, by the Hudson River. These mussels were called Zebra mussels, and were about the size of a pistachio. These were a type of very invasive species, and within a year, they multiplied to 500 billion. The mussels would attach onto a native freshwater mussel and cause it to die. They would also eat all of the phytoplankton, which are at the bottom of the food chain. Clogging the pipes of cities and factories is another one of their harmful actions. A bacterium has been discovered that kills the mussels. This strain is called "Pseudomonas fluorescens strain CL145A", which kills the Zebra mussels, but does not harm the native freshwater species. All of the tests have been positive, and agencies are thinking about using the bacterium in the open water. The starins destroys the digestive system in the mussels.

Connection: This connects to what we have been learning in many different ways. It connects to the ecology unit, with the phytoplankton. It is necessary for the phytoplankton to be at the bottom of the food chain because it provides food for all the aquatic species. It also relates to our microbe unit, dealing with bacteria. It took the scientists many different experiments to see which bacterium was most effective against the mussels. We also talked about invasive species, taking up space and creating competition for the native species, which is what is happening in this case as well.



Url: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/25/science/science-takes-on-a-silent-invader.html?action=click&module=Search&region=searchResults%230&version=&url=http%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fsearch%2Fsitesearch%2F%3Faction%3Dclick%26region%3DMasthead%26pgtype%3DHomepage%26module%3DSearchSubmit%26contentCollection%3DHomepage%26t%3Dqry505%23%2Fbacteria%2Fsince1851%2Fallresults%2F1%2Fallauthors%2Fnewest%2F

De-extinction: Mammoth Prospect or Just Woolly?

Eli Tsakiris

Mr. Mathieu

Period 1

Monday March 10th, 2014

Published: August 19th, 2013

Summery: Scientists are now trying to recreate animals that went extinct hundreds of years ago. However, people wonder what the practical use for this will be, is it just a tool to undo humanities errors, or will it prove to be helpful in the future. The first animals being worked on was the ancient woolly mammoth, an animal that existed millions of years ago.  Professor Adrian Lister described the process as difficult, and told reporters, "The DNA has become fragmented and shattered. You've got an alphabet soup of bits and pieces of DNA left in that frozen tissue." Researchers are trying to piece together the DNA fragments collected from Mammoths in the past, in order to use the same technology as was applied to the cloned sheep “Dolly”. Scientists believe that inserting a Woolly Mammoth gene into an unfertilized reindeer or bison egg, could result in a sort of a Woolly Mammoth hybrid that could later be defined into a more accurate Mammoth. However people wonder the effects of introducing old animals into new ecosystems, since Woolly Mammoths have ancient ecosystem needs, the newer environments may not be compatible with them. In addition many researchers urge scientists to focus their energy on keeping more species from going extinct.

Connection: This article connects to our unit on Molecular Genetics, because it talks thoroughly about the process of DNA fingerprinting and the steps to clone an animals using DNA recombination. The article outlines similar steps we used in extracting DNA from ants, except the extracted Mammoth DNA must then be sequenced and connected. We talked about the process of how inserting foreign genes into an unfertilized egg could produce a genetically different offspring. In addition, the article touches upon ecosystem stability and the effects of introducing a new organism into an already stable ecosystem. We talked about these topics earlier in the year during our unit on ecosystems.

http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23602142

Scientists Propose A DNA-Based Classification System

Amlan Chaudhuri
6 March 2014

Author: Unknown 
Published:  21 February 2014

http://blogs.voanews.com/science-world/2014/02/21/scientist-proposes-new-dna-based-naming-system-for-all-living-organisms/

Summary: 
Boris Vinatzer is a professor at Virginia Tech proposed a new way to classify organisms. His new method is based on the genome sequence. This method is based on the Linnaeus Classification System that was used by scientists. He doesn't want to change the entire classification system but wants to add more specific classifying data. He believes that the genetic system will allow for an easier system.

Connection:
This is article is relevant to our curriculum because we learned about the classification system. We also learned about Linnaeus Classification System. The new genetic classification could change some of the things that we learned about. Some organisms could be placed in a different kingdom if they are more closely related based on the new genome sequence.

Coral Reefs Surprisingly Resistant to Acid Water

Palau's Coral Reefs Surprisingly Resistant to Acid Water

Summary: Marine biologists doing work in the coral reefs of Palau have made two unexpected discoveries that could help scientists learn more about corals' resistance and their resistance to the acid in the ocean. The team there collected samples at nine different points, from the open ocean to the bays and inlets of Palau. With each point they found that there was more and more acid in the seawater. An amazing part of the reef were that the corals living in the more acidic parts were healthy and diverse. There is more diversity and greater coral cover then in non-acidic areas. This information tells of a coral system that is resistant to acidic seawater. In the case of the reefs at Palau, scientists are trying to find out if the corals are just adapted to the low pH. The latter is if the corals are just specifically for the environment of Palau. By learning of what is the cause of this could benefit coral reefs everywhere. While the ocean's acidic levels differ at different points on the earth, it is all gradually changing due to the increased carbon dioxide in the earth's atmosphere. The ocean absorbs the carbon dioxide, which lowers the pH and making the world's oceans more acidic. As well as shell-building organisms living in the ocean that take out carbonate ions from the water but put back carbon dioxide from their respiration. With the labs of coral growing in low pH conditions, it simulates some future conditions and a wide variety of negative effects.

Relevance: This article relates to the coral reefs and that the corals house organisms that provide food for the coral, while the coral provides a place for the organism to live. As well as coral bleaching which is when the corals are stressed out from the high level of acid in the water, or from warm water temperatures. The coral near the Palau islands however were somehow resistant to the acid in the water. Which prevented the corals from becoming stressed out and spitting out the polyps. By learning more about what it is that allows the coral to resist and hence not get stressed out from the high acid levels in the ocean water.

Author: Macroevolution.net
Published: February 18, 2014
Link: http://www.macroevolution.net/coral-reefs-surprisingly-resistant.html
By: Simin Li

Amber fossil reveals ancient reproduction in flowering plants

Author: Oregon State University 

URL: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140103204510.htm 

Date of Publication: January 3, 2014
By: Francesca Sajedi

Summary: 

       A 100-million-year old piece of amber was found in the amber mines in the Hukawng Valley of Myanmar. This piece of amber had the oldest evidence of a flowering plant. The fossil had 18 tiny flowers on it. When researchers and scientists looked at the fossil under a microscope they saw the pollen tubes coming out of two grains of pollen into the flower’s stigma. This gave them the insight on how early flowering plants reproduced. With this fossil they can see that the reproductive system of today’s angiosperms is identical to the reproductive system of the angiosperms found in the fossil. Scientists and researchers were surprised that the fossil was fossilized so fast. They knew it fossilized fast because they could see the pollen tubes. The pollen seemed to be sticky which means that an insect carried the pollen. The fossils gave scientists and researchers insight on the biodiversity of the mid-Cretaceous era. They knew that ferns, mosses, mammals, conifers, birds, and flowering plants were beginning to appear, but dinosaurs were still dominant. This led them to believe that some insects lived at this time. They genius and species name for this new flower is Micropetasos burmensis. This was an exciting new discovery because it told us about a time period a long time ago.

Relevance:

      This article relates to our plant unit because it is about a new discovery of a flowering plant. Also it gives us more insight on when flowering plants started to appear. With this fossil the scientists and researchers could see the pollen tubes and the stigma. This also relates to what we are doing because we are looking at the life cycle of different plants. This article said that the reproduction system of today’s flowering plants is identical to the one found in the fossil. It connects to past units because it gave them insight on the biodiversity back then and how they name new findings. They knew that the evolution of flowering plants lead to greater biodiversity, so they now know that this diversity must of happened earlier than they thought.  They gave the new flower the name of Micropetasos burmensis. Micropetasos being the genius and burmensis being the species. The fossil also connects back to dating fossils. They figured out that this fossil was 100 million years old. Most probably by radiometric dating.