GMOs aren't very dangerous.

GMOs aren't very dangerous.

Summary
It has been a hot debate recently over the risks posed by GMOs(Genetically Modified Organisms). Many people believe they could reduce the nurtitional value of food or even poison it. Despite this, the EPA, and the FDA have both made statements and done large amounts of research into whether this is a real threat, or just an over reaction, and found that these fears are baseless, and that GMOs are safe to eat. With these findings, hopefully we can at least quell some of the public unrest about GMOs and let us continue our research in how they can be used to produce more, healthier food with less effort and cost.

Relevance:
This relates to our unit about genes with how the only way to create a GMO is to alter an organisms genes. In addition, it relates to evolution through how GMOs are often used to kill bugs, but these bugs can go through natural selection (a process of evolution) and gain an immunity to whatever is in the plant which is killing them

Source: USA Today
Author: Jolie Lee
Date: January 3, 2014
Link: http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2014/01/03/gmo-genetically-modified-organism-facts-cheerios/4302121/

Post by: Alex Osler

Fish Go Birding

Fish Go Birding

Source: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fish-go-birding-video
Date: January 9th 2014

Summary:
               In a lake in Africa there was a fish that jumped out of the water and grabbed a swallow strait from the air. It is only since the 1940s that the African tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus) have been known to eat swallows. this knowledge is so recent that Nico Smit and his team was skeptical . In Fact, when they found the fish catch the bird they were not looking for evidence, but rather observing the migration patterns of this fish and other animals in the lake. They saw about 20 fish do the same thing. Because there is so little studies of freshwater fish, Smit "hopes that their findings will really focus the attention on the importance of basic freshwater research, and specifically fish behavior.”

Relevance:
                    This article shows that even though most people think of evolution as something happening in the past it never stops happening. That's how we end up with animals doing/eating something they didn't in the past. Organisms will keep adapting to new environment changes such as a abundance of one type of food.

First Dinosaurs Identified in Saudi Arabia

Amlan Chaudhuri

Author: Science Daily
Date: Jan, 7, 2014
URL: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140107092829.htm

Summary

Recently, a group of scientists that were working under the auspices of the Saudi Geological Survey came across vertebrae and teeth that belonged to  "Brontosaurus-like" sauropod, or a dinosaur. It was found in a dry desert. However, in the time of dinosaurs, the desert was once a beach. This allowed the bones and teeth to be preserved as these fossils. The teeth and bones are approximately 72 million years old. Similar dinosaurs were found in North Africa, Madagascar, and South America. The isotope that was used to date this was most likely Uranium 238 because of its long half life. Also, this is the first dinosaur found in the Arabian Peninsula. Hopefully, this will lead to further discoveries so we can know more about the creatures. 

Relevance

This is relevant to our unit of evolution. In this unit we learned that fossils are mostly found in places with sedimentary rocks. Also, they are common in water. The desert was once a beach so the dinosaur could be preserved. Also, we learned about the half life of isotopes to date fossils. Since this fossil is a dinosaur and it was a long time ago, the most likely isotope would be uranium 238. Since, similar dinosaurs were found in South America, this supports continental drift. The dinosaurs were probably living on the same mass of land when they died and became fossils. Then the land masses split apart and they moved farther away.

Eli Tsakiris  

Group Seeks Special Label for Food: ‘Natural’

Summary: This article tells about a group that is seeking a new label on GMO foods. The trade organization mentioned in the article still believes that these GMO foods can be labeled as “Natural”. Connecticut has already passed this law and allows the GMO containing foods to be labeled as “natural”. Some people believe this is a misnomer because the foods have been intentionally altered, unnaturally, in order to have characteristics valued by the companies. Many people are afraid of these GMOs and believe they cause health problems and are attempting to avoid them completely. This label is argued to misinform the people and almost trick some into eating GMOs they do not wish to consume. The article also cites other lawsuits in process regarding companies that used the label “natural” but were found to have artificial chemicals or flavors in their product. The exact meaning of the label is still being decided and many people argue that it should not be allowed on these GMO products.

Connection: This connects to our section on recombinant DNA technology. We talked about how technology is now so advanced that we are facing moral questions before we face materialistic problems. Since the effects of GMO are not known on the body we cannot be sure weather or not the foods are harmful or benign. We talked about how companies can utilize the different genes from foreign species to make their product more productive, and since this is so effective many companies do not think to consider the potentially negative side effects. The companies may realize the potential, but they still lobby to create a label that can trick people into thinking their food is completely natural. Until we know more about the effects of genetically modifying food, we cannot title the foods as natural.

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/20/business/trade-group-seeks-natural-label-on-modified-food.html?adxnnl=1&ref=geneticallymodifiedfood&adxnnlx=1389791886-Yl+zSzFPViAAVMgZ7d+NRA

Iconic Australasian Trees Found as Fossils in South America

by M. R. Carvalho

Summery: 
In this article it reveals the recent discovery of the Agathis tree in South America. This tree was originally found in Australia and later also discovered in Antarctica. Fossil records show that this happened as early as 52 million years ago, when Antarctica and the other countries had the same environments to sustain this tree, which is mountain rainforests where it stays wet and warm all year. These three countries all were all joined together when they were part of the southern supercontinent called Gonwana. The Agathis trees became extinct in Antarctica once the continent broke off and became very cold and icy. The went extinct in South America when the environment started to experience seasonal dryness. The reason that researchers have just found these fossils now is due to the thickness of the rock, which scientists had not been able to penetrate until 1999 even though the sites were found in the 1920's. It still is present in some places of Australia and New Zealand with little human interference.

Connection:
In this unit and our very first unit we studied adaptation and the challenges adaptation faces. In this article it discusses how adaptation can be disrupted by the environment. Because this tree takes so many years to grow and can reach up to 200 feet tall and relies on a specific niche, it has a low adaptation rate. As a result, it has become extinct from two of it's places of origin. It also shows that the growing technological field of human research is improving the ability to find fossils in dense rock. This allows scientists to add to the fossil record, furthering our understanding of the Earth. The last connection that is brought up is having to do with the changing environment due to humans. Deforestation and climate change is having a huge influence over the survival of certain populations. In a study done on similar living relatives of the Agathis in Borneo, the species is being seriously threatened.

Published:The National Science Foundation
URL: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140109132650.htm

Discovery Should Save Wheat Farmers Millions of Dollars

Discovery Should Save Wheat Farmers Millions of Dollars
Written by: McGill University
Published: October 9,2013
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131009201057.htm

Summary:
Every year, the global wheat industry loses as much as one billion dollars due to wheat crops sprouting too early. This is called preharvest sprouting, or PHS, and causes the grain to be of inferior quality. For decades, scientist have been trying to find the gene that causes PHS in order to modify the crops and prevent it. Recently, a team at McGill University a key gene that acts as a switch, determining how the plants react to the conditions of high humidity and large quantities of rainfall by either germinating early or continuing to grow and develop at a normal rate. The key is the way that specifically the ARGONAUTE4_-9 genes are expressed. This discovery will save farmers the money lost from PHS crops, and could be applied to other grains such as barley as well.

Relevance:
This article relates to what we have learned in class about genetically modified organisms and the field of genetic engineering. Specifically, this article was very similar to what we learned about BT corn. BT corn was engineered to have a pesticide produced by the plant, therefore saving farmers money by losing less crops due to insects and not having to spray the crops with pesticide. In both cases, farmers were losing money due to loss of usable crops, and the problem can be potentially solved by genetically modifying the plant.

Wolf to Dog: Scientists Agree on How, but Not Where

Summary

It has been agreed for a long time that dogs evolved from wolves, but lately there has been some debate over where dogs originated. Originally, scientist assumed dogs originated in Europe because of the evidence left by fossils, but then new techniques started being used. By sequencing parts of DNA from living dogs and wolf breeds all over the world, scientists found different results than expected. The problem is that two groups of scientists have come to different conclusions. To find more evidence, these scientists are now able to extract DNA from the fossils. This shows how much scientific tools have developed, and how they are allowing scientists to discover much more about evolution than ever before.

Connection

This article directly relates to evolution. The scientists use fossils of wolves/dogs, relatives of the modern day wolves and dogs, to asses where the dog species originated. The modern day wolves and dogs are descendants of the fossils mentioned, and this is proved by gene sequencing. Gene sequencing in fossils has helped prove that certain things evolved from others. In the article there was also a mention of how some wolves adapted to being with humans, thus making them domesticated. Human's then started to breed these domesticated wolves into many forms. That is an example of artificial selection.

Source: The New York Times
Author: Carl Zimmer
Date: November 14, 203
Link: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/14/science/wolf-to-dog-scientists-agree-on-how-but-not-where.html?ref=evolution

 

 

Labels for GMO foods are a bad idea.

Labels for GMO

            This article is about the argument whether GMO foods should be labeled or not. People have different ideas, but this article stresses the bad side of labeling GMO foods. People say that they want this information on their food because it will be useful, but all this label would do is intensify the misunderstanding of GMO foods being unhealthy. The American Association for the Advancement of Science and the World Health Organization both agree that genetically modified foods are just as safe as other foods. Also, by putting labels on GMO foods, people may not buy them as often and would have to buy premium non-GMO foods, which would be more expensive because they require more water and pesticides. Although people don't think so, GMO foods can be very helpful to both the consumer and the producer. It would help the producer because a study of Indian farmers showed that genetically modified crops increased their yield per acre by 24%, and profits were increased by 50%. An example of a GMO helping the consumer would be researchers creating golden rice, which has lots of vitamin A in it to prevent blindness and death caused by vitamin A deficiency.


Relevance:  This article relates to our previous unit of Molecular Genetics. During this unit, we learned about GMO's in the lab that we did about GMO's. We studied the constant fight of whether it should be labeled or not. This article talks about this and relates to the struggle of consumers seeing that foods are genetically modified and not buying it.




Link: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=labels-for-gmo-foods-are-a-bad-idea
Published on September 6th, 2013

Tiny mutation may have shaped modern humans, scientists say

Description: Scientists discover that about 30,000 years ago, a tiny genetic mutation known as EDAR arose in the human genome. Scientists are able to observing how EDAR affects mice. This small genetic change is one substituting chemical letter of DNA for another. This may have helped the people in Asia adapt to their environment by giving them extra sweat glands and to grow thicker hair or fuller breasts. The path to find this mutation was hard because the beneficial mutations to track are usually passed down with thousands of variants that happen to live in the chromosomal neighborhood. The researches used powerful computers to sort through the human genome to identify genetic changes that can be linked to our evolution. To understand how these mutations affected humans, the researches tested it first on mice. The EDAR gene was able to thicken the hair of the mice and changes in sweat glands and mammary glands. The change in sweat glands surprised the researches since they expected larger teeth, which didn't show up, and thicker hair. Since they didn't expect a change in the sweat and mammary glands, they were surprised to find out that this happened. To confirm that this also happened among the humans too, they examined the fingertips of 623 people with the EDAR gene from China. They found that humans too had this change in sweat glands and mammary glands. All of these results show how the EDAR mutation may have helped drive evolution. Scientists hypothesized that there were two ways of this mutation being passed on. One of them being since the humans had bigger sweat glands, they were able to survive in the environment and reproduce more because of this. Second, the thicker hair or bigger breasts might have been more appealing to a mate causing them to be chosen over other available options causing this mutation to be further passed on. This story was similar to the story of the TLR-5 gene, which is involved in protecting the body from certain bacteria. The research team's analysis suggested that many of these mutations weren't mutations in the gene themselves, but in parts of the chromosome.

Relevance: This story connects to our unit on evolution, heredity, and molecular genetics.  This articles relates to how a mutation helped a certain species survive. This is evolution itself as evolution is the development of species through different beneficial mutations. It shows how species gain a mutation that is beneficial to them and because of it they are able to survive and reproduce better. It also shows how in DNA sequencing, a genetic mutation like the changing of one nucleotide can change a lot. It also shows genetic mutations in the DNA sequencing or in the chromosome itself such as the substitution of one chemical letter of DNA. It also connects to our heredity unit due to the fact that his mutation was passed on through heredity.


Published: February 14, 2013
Link: http://articles.latimes.com/2013/feb/14/science/la-sci-human-evolution-genes-20130215

GMO apples

This article is about a genetically modified apple that will now turn brown once you cut it. The apple is modified by adding more genes that make the enzyme that produces the browning. By adding more genes that make the enzyme, the genes all get turned off, and the enzyme is not made, and thus, no browning occurs. A lot of the article is about how the Canadian company that produced this apple is trying to get this apple approved for the general use. The main idea is that companies that sell pre-sliced packaged apples will not have to pay for chemicals that stop the browning process.

Connection: We learned about GMOs in our GMO food lab. This article relates because we also researched about the marketing troubles that companies are having, and the consumers not consuming the product because it has GMOs.

Link:
http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2014/01/08/260782518/this-gmo-apple-wont-brown-will-that-sour-the-fruits-image

Dan Charles
Jan 8, 2014

Inbreeding May Have Lead to Neanderthal Extinction

Summary
Recent DNA analysis of the toe bone of a neanderthal woman estimated to have lived around 50,000 years in a Siberian cave ago shows that her parents were very closely related. The prevalence of inbreeding amongst neanderthals suggests that they lived in many fragmented groups. This reduced genetic diversity, combined with an already low population, could have helped lead to the extinction of the neanderthals.

Relevance
This relates to our recent units because it highlights the importance of genetic diversity in the survival of a species. Should the findings prove to be accurate, then it could shed light on just how important it is for a species to maintain high levels of genetic diversity, and not to live in fragmented populations as the neanderthals did.

Citation
Author: Dani Cooper
Published: December 19th, 2013
Link: http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2013/12/19/3914544.htm

DNA Discovery Reveals Surprising Dolphin Origins

Summary

Until recently, scientists were not entirely sure what the origin of the clymene dolphin was. The researches noticed that it had some external features similar to a striped dolphin, but a skull structure that was similar to the spinner dolphin. It turns out that the clymene dolphin arose from both species. Although unlikely, hybrids of two separate species can survive and produce offspring. Some species can produce offspring but that offspring is infertile. For the offspring to be fertile and to eventually evolve into a distinct species, the hybrid must be very fit for the environment and it also must not mate with either parental species, but only other hybrids. To make this occurrence even more rare, dolphins are mammals, and mammals create fertile offspring more rarely than other groups such as fish or insects. In fact, the clymene dolphin is the first marine mammal, fertile hybrid ever identified. 

Connection

In the past unit we discussed hybrids, but only infertile ones. This article not only connects to the topic but also sheds more light on it, showing the circumstances in which the hybrid can be fertile and even evolve into a distinct and new species. The article also connects to the unit on genetics because of the method used to discover the origin of this dolphin species. The researchers compared the DNA of both the nucleus and the mitochondria. The mitochondrial DNA, as mentioned in the article, is received from just the mother. we also learned about this during the unit.

Author: Charles Q. Choi

Published: January 11, 2014

URL: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/01/140111-hybrid-dolphin-species-ocean-animal-science/

Human Hand Closes Evolutionary Gap

Summary
Humans have a recognizable hand anatomy that is specific to our species. It allows us to make and use tools. Apes do not have these distinctive features, and it was unsure when in time these features first appeared in our evolution. Now, a Missouri researcher and team of colleagues found a hand bone of a human who roamed East Africa 1.42 million years ago. They believe the hand belongs to the early human species, Homo erectus. This bone is the earliest evidence of the human ancestor having a modern day hand. This fossil find pushes the time this modern hand come about a whole half million years earlier then had been previously thought.

Relevance
This story connects to our recent evolution unit. The anatomy of the human had is something that would have had to evolve many many years and generations. The survival pressures that could have sculpted the adaption of this modern day hand, is its ability to grasp and use tools. The better the hand can use tools, the more likely the person will survive to create more offspring with this better functioning hand. As the human population struggled for food, those with the tool using hand were able to get more food, and as a result, have more children. The more children, the better your traits (like the tool using hand) will be passed on.

Author- Jerett Rion
Published- Dec. 16, 2013
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/12/131216154902.htm

An Ancient Fish’s Four-Wheel Drive

Caroline Maxwell
Period 1

Summary: The Tiktaalik was a type of fish that lived around 375 million years ago. It was a mix between a fish and a crocodile and could get as long as nine feet long. The Tiktaalik lived in the shallow waters of Northern Canada. It began adapting and eventually it began to develop four limbs, enabling it to walk on land. Fossils have been found recently, and the "pelvic girdle" was stronger, which is a great sign that the fish developed hind legs. Other than the legs, the fish was also evolving in many other places. Their brain was changing, longer necks began to develop, and the Tiktaalik had primitive lungs. These newly found fossils have expanded their knowledge of how this extinct animal evolved to a land creature.

Connection: In order to look at the evolution of the Tiktaalik, scientists used anatomy. From this they say how the fish could have legs and had evolved into the animal it was before extinction. If they had not found these fossils, then scientists would not had the information to make the connections that they have made. People did not know how or when the transition from water animal to land animal occurred, but with the help of these fossils we are much more informed. Anatomy played a huge roll in the finding out of this information, which is one of the factors of evolution that we studied in class.

Author: John Noble Wilford
Published: Jan. 13, 2014
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/14/science/an-ancient-fishs-four-wheel-drive.html?_r=0          

East Asian Traits Explained by EDAR Gene

Summary
Within the human species, races have undergone divergent evolution. There are hundreds of differences in the genomes of east Asians from Africans and Europeans, but one in particular has been explored. This gene is the EDAR gene, and in most east Asians it has a mutated part. This mutation occurred about 35,000 years ago. Using mice genetically engineered to have the same mutation, scientists showed that the mutation causes thicker hair, more sweat glands, and smaller breasts. The gene likely also affects the shape of teeth. The prevalence of the mutated EDAR gene could be suggestive of natural selection, or sexual selection. In natural selections, people with more sweat glands that lived in a hotter environment would fare better and be more likely to have children. In sexual selection, the visible cues that the mutated EDAR gene causes, mainly thicker hair and smaller breasts, would be more attractive and therefore selected and passed on. However, the experiments with mice have not proven to answer these questions as to why the mutated EDAR gene became common.

Connection
Currently we have been focusing on evolution, and this article touches on some key concepts. One of these is natural selection, or the mechanism in which individuals with better suited traits to the environment survive to produce offspring. Another of these is directional selection, which is when individuals with more extreme traits are favored and pass on that trait to offspring until the frequency of that trait becomes average instead of extreme. Since the different EDAR gene that east Asians possess began as a mutation, it would have been rare. However now it is more frequent than rare. In addition, races are the product of convergent evolution, or the separation of similarities between groups. In regards to the human races, this was likely due to the geographic isolation that the continents caused. One topic related to evolution, as it causes species' traits to change, but that we didn't cover is sexual selection. This means individuals who are more able to obtain a mate will be selected and pass on whatever trait caused that. It can lead to traits that are harmful to the individual, such as bright colors that attract predators.

Source: The New York Times
Author: Wade, Nicholas
Date: 14 February 2013
Link: <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/15/science/studying-recent-human-evolution-at-the-genetic-level.html?_r=1&>

Where did hind legs come from?

Summary

Thanks to newly discovered information about an ancient organism called the Tiktaalik roseae, scientists concluded that hind legs evolved from the fins of fish. This goes against the previously accepted hypothesis that hind legs developed in species after they moved onto land. The Tiktaalik is the one of the best examples of a transitional species between fish and land tetrapods that we have discovered. The organism looked like a cross between a fish and a crocodile. It was a long organism with scales and fins but also with elbows, shoulders, and partial wrists on its large forefins that allowed it to support itself on the seafloor. It wasn't until recently that a fossil containing the bottom half of a Tiktaalik was found, and that was where scientists found a pelvis that is very similar to the pelvis of a tetrapod. They were used by the animal to swim, and it gave Tiktaalik the ability to have a wider range of movements. This species gave us a new insight to how some common animal limbs came to be. 

Relevance

This article relates to our unit on evolution. We studied how various limbs evolved in species, and how we can use homologous structures to see how species are related.  With this new evidence discussed in the article, we can see where hind legs originally came from. The homologous structure, the pelvis, is similar in structure in both the Tiktaalik and many four legged animals, so we can conclude that many animals evolved from this ancient fish-tetrapod hybrid. This is a good article where we can see some of the methods of classification and evolution that we learned about in class actually being used in the real world. Also, the fact that this contradicts a previous hypothesis is good for us because we can see that we are often wrong, and that theories change over time as new evidence is discovered. 

Author: Rachel Reilly
Date Posted: January 13, 2014
Link: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2538669/Did-hind-legs-evolve-FINS-375-million-year-old-fossil-rubbishes-theory-limbs-developed-vertebrates-lived-land.html

Genetic Mutations with Familial Alzheimer's Disease Discovered

Description:

    Research led by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute researcher Chunyu Wang, has recently revealed molecular processes behind the genetically heritable Familial Alzheimer' Disease, which leads to memory loss and general deterioration of the brain, which is deadly to the patient with the condition. The researchers studied two mutations that are known to cause Familial Alzheimer' Disease: V44M and V44A sequences. These cause composition changes in the brains.

    Two polypeptide chains: Amyloid Beta-42 (42 amino acids long) and Amyloid Beta-40 (40 amino acids long), are found in about a 1 to 9 ratio in a normal brain. However, Amyloid Beta-42 which is 2 amino acids longer than Amyloid Beta-40, is much more lethal for the brain, and is responsible for memory failure. Patients with Familial Alzheimer' Disease have a much higher ratio of Amyloid Beta-42 to Amyloid Beta-40 in the brain.

    The way an orginal polypeptide chain, amyloid precursor protein(APP) is processed, determines the ratio of resulting Amyloid Beta-42 to Amloid Beta-40. Normally, an enzyme called γ-secretase cuts the protein in such a way that Amyloid Beta-40 is more inclined to be produced. However, the V44M and V44A mutations change the amyloid precursor protein, so that when it is cut by γ-secretase, the cut happens in a slightly different place, resulting to production of the lethal Amyloid Beta-42 polypeptide.

   Basically, APP is cut differently due to mutations, and the result is the memory-failure-inducing Amyloid Beta-42 in higher ratios.

Relevance: 
    The study describes a way in which a phenotype is changed based on a mutation, thus it relates to the topic of molecular genetics. The study additionally describes how the trait of having Familial Alzheimer' Disease is inheritable, or able to be passed from one generation to the next. Also, how such a trait could possibly play a role in evolution as a genetic disease does relate to the study of evolution, and the resulting lack of evolutionary fitness of people with the disease.

Published: January 13, 2014
Link: http://www.news-medical.net/news/20140113/Researchers-discover-two-genetic-mutations-associated-with-Familial-Alzheimers-Disease.aspx

Original Cheerios are GMO Free

Summary:
General Mills has recently switched some of its sources of its ingredients to ensure that the Original Cheerios will not be genetically modified or have genetically modified ingredients. They originally were using beet sugar, which is sometimes genetically modified, and corn that may have been a GMO. Now by switching there sources for the sugar and corn the Original Cheerios are not genetically modified or have genetically modified ingredients. This is a major acomplishment of socail pressure via groups that advicat against GMO.

Relevance:
We just did a lab on GMOs. We have looked at Genetically Modified Organisms and hw and why they are created. This also has a special relevance to my lab group since we used beets.

Citation:
http://money.cnn.com/2014/01/03/news/companies/cheerios-gmo/index.html
CNN
Aaron Smith
January 3, 2014

Coming to our woods: super coyotes

Link
http://thetandd.com/coming-to-our-woods-super-coyotes/article_4fcd4080-75cc-11e3-92d3-0019bb2963f4.html
This article was written by Dr. John Rheney and published on January 5, 2014.

Summary
South Carolinians are aware of a steady migration of coyotes and their impact on game. Lately, coyotes have been stalking humans on hiking and bike trails, and reports of attacks have been growing- many of them in urban areas where they target children, pedestrians with their dogs. They prey on pets to survive the winter and early spring. Using genetic research, researchers think most attacks are actually coming from the Eastern coyote, or the "coywolf"- the cross between a coyote and a wolf. Sizing between a coyote and a wolf, coywolves eat a wide variety of foods and live in packs like wolves and bearing the same jaws, skulls, and teeth. Some have also been breeding with wolves. These canines have been moving from the Midwest into the Northeast, but some stray as far south as South Carolina. Another cross is between the coyote and the domesticated dog. For some coon dog owners, their coon dogs mated with the coyotes, producing hybrids known as "coydogs". Coydogs are larger than dogs and lack the coyotes' shy nature to humans. In fact, they can grow aggressive in urban areas where people don't drive them away. They breed year round but after about three generations of inbreeding, they get genetic diseases. At some point, coydogs coming from the west may meet the coywolves in South Carolina. The writer questions what the coydog/coywolf hybrid will look like and whether they will be as aggressive as some coyotes.

Relevance
This article relates to our current unit on evolution because we studied a little on subspecies, which are two groups that have some sort of a barrier so they can't interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Due to the migration of the coyotes into the areas where humans and wolves live, it harbingered crosses between the coyote and the dog, and the coyote and the wolf, which produced fertile offspring, demonstrating that the coyote and the dog are subspecies. (Whether the coyote and the wolf are subspecies is currently debatable.) From what we learned in the heredity unit, hybrid offspring may display traits from its parents. This explains why the jaws, skull, and teeth of a coywolf resemble a wolf's. Size may a polygenic trait, which might explain why the size of the coywolf is between the coyote and the wolf.

New Fossil sheds light on the origin of lions, tigers, and bears

Connor Cates

Author: F. Sole, Science Daily
Publish Date: Jan 6, 2014

Summary
New Fossils found in Belgium have provided new information on the origins of carnivores. A species named Dormaalocyon latouri left newly discovered fossils that allow for a better understanding of the animal. The new specimen has over 250 teeth and ankle bones.The fossil found contains the deciduous, or baby, teeth of the animal. This lead to the implication that this species is close to the origin of carnavoraforms, and may be the first in Europe.
The increase in ankle bones suggests that this animal was a tree dweller. Plus, about 55 million years ago, this would also imply it lived in a more warm, humid climate. Although this species seems like possibly the origin, there were more primitive species in the group of an earlier time period. The author feels this fossil will help with the understanding of the evolution of placental mammals. All this leads to the fact that there are still more fossils to be discovered.

Relevance
This article relates to our study of evolution and fossil records. In class, we learned that fossils can provide useful information on the evolutionary path of different forms of life, and this article describes how a new fossil may lead to the discovery of the origins of carnivores and other mammals. This article also relates to our study of homologous and analogous structures in animals by touching upon the idea that these structures were the base of the later structures to form, leading to homologous structures in different branches in the evolutionary tree.

Link
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140106160029.htm

First Shark Genome Decoded

First Shark Genome Decoded

Summary: An international team of researchers including the scientists of the Max Planck Institute of Immunibiology and Epigenetics. They have sequenced and analyzed the genome of the elephant shark, by comparing the elephant shark's genome and other vertebrate genomes. This has made it clear why sharks are made out of cartilage and not bone and that the immune system of sharks is much simpler then the human immune system. The analysis of the immune system showed that sharks seem to lack T-helper lymphocytes, which were considered important for defending against viral/bacterial infections, diabetes, and arthritis within vertebrates. Though even without T-helper lymphocytes, sharks still seem to have a strong immune system and live very long. Onto the structure  of the sharks cartilage, is that there is a family of genes which are not present in sharks but are in bony vertebrates and are needed for bone formation. This could mean a better understanding of bone diseases for humans.

Relevance: This article relates to the genomes and the human genome project. This connects to chapter 12 where we learned about how the nucleus contains genomes and how genomes are the complete set of genetic material in an organism. The genome is able to fit into the nucleus of a single cell because of DNA's incredible packaging system. DNA first wraps proteins called histones, then DNA wraps into a helical fiber and then it is wrapped further until it becomes a "super-coil". By wrapping the DNA more, it gets compacted into a chromosome. It also connects back to the Human Genome Project because by finding out about other genomes, we can diagnose, treat, and maybe even prevent some common illnesses.

Author: boehm@immunbio.mpg.de
Published: January 8, 2014
Link: http://www.biologynews.net/archives/2014/01/08/first_shark_genome_decoded.html
By: Simin Li

Stem Cells On Road To Specialization

Emily Yin P1

Date of Publication: January 7th, 2014
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140107102646.htm

Summary: The Danish Stem Cell Center at the University of Copenhagen has proposed a method by which embryonic cells and embryonic stem cells become specialized cells. Constantly-moving, developing embryonic cells construct a physical environment reminiscent of a city with pathways and roads that support specialization, based on signals from other cells; these roads lead them towards preliminary stages of pancreas and liver cells. Additionally, roads from the developing stem cells can be isolated and freezed, then used in a different environment. This demonstrates that the road can be utilized to improve the cells' differentiation towards mature cells--even without the presence of a crucial cell signal. The research carries important implications in stem-cell therapies: firstly, the physical environment greatly impacts cell development. With the new information gained, scientists can create a more ideal physical environment for stem cells that are in early stages of cell differentiation. Secondly, researchers may wish to modify their latest approaches to human embryonic stem cell specialization, as the important so-called "roads" are not factored into current research.

Relevance: This article expands on the brief textbook introduction of stem cells. Our curriculum states that stem cells are groups of undifferentiated cells with the potential to differentiate into different types of cells. Embryonic stem cells, specifically, are also mentioned. Many stem cell therapies focus on this ability to differentiate, on account of its potential in curing certain illnesses. The textbook also touches upon the idea that it takes right conditions for stem cells to develop into  specialized cells. Creating the right laboratory conditions links the curriculum we have studied and the article, as the concept of "pathways" or "roads" that stem cells form can help researchers create more optimal physical environments for developing stem cells. This, in turn, improves cell differentiation and the possibility of successful clinical applications of stem cell therapy. The study also sheds some light on how differentiation occurs by means of these roads, which augments the existing textbook information.

Humans driving extinction faster than species can evolve, say experts

Olivia Tyndall P1

Author: Juliette Jowit
Link: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/mar/07/extinction-species-evolve

Summary: Humans are driving animals and plants to extinction faster than new species can evolve. Conservation experts have already signaled that the world is on the verge of the "sixth great extinction" of species (the fifth great extinction killed the dinosaurs), due to the destruction of natural habitats, hunting, the spread of alien predators and disease, and climate change. Although it is difficult to measure the rate at which species evolve, scientists can now be sure that extinction rates are faster than that of the evolution of species. The IUCN calculated that the rate of extinction had reached 100-1,000 times that suggested by the fossil records before humans. Swedish scientists have warned that anything over 10 times the background rate of extinction – 10 species per every million per year – was above the limit that could be tolerated if the world was to be safe for humans. Currently,  one-in-five mammals, one-in-eight birds, one-in-three amphibians, and one-in-four corals are considered under threat.

Relevance: This connects to the units of evolution and ecosystems. We've learned in the evolution unit that evolution requires mass death, because species that aren't well adapted to an ecosystem usually cannot survive. However, it's not that these animals and plants aren't suited to their environment - their environment is being removed or changed faster than natural selection can provide these new traits. It also connects to our unit on ecosystems in which we learned that effects of introducing alien species. These alien species are being transported by people and then killing off native species by outcompeting them.

Neanderthal Woman's Genome Reveals Unknown Human Lineage

Author: Charles Q. Choi 

Date Published: December 18th, 2013

Link: http://www.livescience.com/42056-neanderthal-woman-genome-sequenced.html

Summary: 

  Recently, scientists sequenced the nuclear DNA in a toe bone found within the Denisova cave in southern Siberia. The 50 sequences preformed revealed that the bone belonged to a Neanderthal woman. Researchers compared DNA sequences between modern humans, Neanderthals and the human relatives, Denisovans. By doing so they found both Neanderthal and Denisovans. Their findings helped to prove that interbreeding occurred among different human lineages. 
 Scientists have also discovered that Denisovans interbred with a mysterious human lineage. Apparently the unknown relative split from ancestors of modern humans before later groups such as Neanderthals or Denisovans did. Homo erectus, the earliest predecessor of modern humans, could possibly be the unknown lineage.  
  Researchers compared the genomes of Neanderthals, Denisovans and modern humans in order to identify genetic changes that set modern humans apart from their ancestors. A number of the changes found have to with brain development and may have played a role in the survival and success of modern humans. 

Relevance:
  This article is relevant to our recent unit on evolution. Specifically, this article discusses using DNA comparison to prove ancestral relation. We have learned about using DNA comparison and homologous structures to identify wether or not species are related. In the article researchers take DNA from fossils they have discovered and compare it to the DNA of another species in order to see when a specific species diverged from others. Depending on how many genes are shared by the two species, one can tell how distantly related they are. Researchers also compared the genomes of two species to see what set one apart from another, as we read about. The article also discusses human lineage, and the human family tree, we have learned about tracing lineage and phylogenic trees, which are used to show how species are related and where they diverge. We have also learned about fossils and the fossil record, which researchers used to get DNA in the article. 

Important Mutation Discovered in Dairy Cattle

 Kaitlyn Li

Author: Science Daily
Date: Jan. 3 2014
URL: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140103204424.htm


Summary:

Recently scientists have found a genetic deletion that affects both fertility and milk yield in dairy cattle. For many years milk yield in dairy cattle such as the Scandinavian dairy cattle have been rising. This has resulted from targeted breeding programs and modern breeding methods. Although milk yield has risen, there has been almost no improvement in fertility. This unfavorable correlation between fertility and milk yield is partially affected by a deletion of a gene sequence. This has been recently discovered by scientist from Aarhus University, University of Liège, and MTT Agrifood Reasearch Finland. Before this discovery people have assumed that the reduction in fertility is due to the negative energy balance of high-producing cows at the peak of their lactation. The deletion of four genes is a recessive embryonically lethal mutation leading to calves to die while they are still embryos. Since the mutation is recessive both parents must have the gene and pass it to their calf, for the calf to be affected. This mutation has become common among in Nordic Red cattle and has caused many embryos to die in Finnish Ayshire, Swedish Red, and Danish Red cattle. The mutation has become widespread since it has a strong positive affect on milk yield. Breeder selecting for high milk yields have inadvertently also selected embryo mortality.

Relevance:

This article relates to our Hereditary Unit and Molecular Genetic Unit. In the hereditary unit we learned that traits were passed down from generation to generation. A parent contains two alleles. One allele from each parent is given to their offspring. In the article the mutation is recessive meaning that not having the mutation is dominant. When passing down traits if both parents contain the recessive trait then there is a chance their offspring will die as an embryo. Yet if one parent doesn't contain the recessive trait and has the dominant non mutated trait, the offspring will still develop. Since an organism is heterogeneous, the dominant trait is expressed. We also learned that mutations in a gene sequence occur when a change occurs, either a deletion, insertion or substitution. In the article a deletion occurred which lead to embryos being unable to develop. This mutation is a frameshift mutation and also must be carried in the gametes because it's inherited. This article also gives an example of artificial selection where humans breed domesticated plants and animals to produce offspring with genetic traits that humans valued. For dairy cattle, humans would choose the cattle that best yield milk. These cattle are inadvertently carried with the mutation where fertility is lowered and milk yield is raised. Since these cattle are the ones selected to reproduce, the mutation would occur more and more in the gene pool.

Clues to How Plants Evolved to Cope With Cold

Date of Publication: December 22, 2013
Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/12/131222161805.htm

Summary: Researchers have recently discovered how plants evolved to cope with cold weather. By studying fossil evidence and reconstructing the past climate conditions, researchers were able to suggest that early flowering plants first began to grow in a climate that was warm and tropical. Then researchers identified three traits plants have to avoid freezing in the cold: dropping their leaves before the cold weather can freeze them, having narrower water transport cells and a finer circulatory system, and dying back into the ground and re-sprouting from the roots in the spring. Once researchers were able to compile all their leaf and stem data, they mapped it out on the evolutionary tree for flowering plants. By doing this, researchers were able to see that many plants had these cold weather traits before they were even in colder climates. It is hypothesized that these were adaptations developed due to droughts, with the only difference being that these traits did not begin happening right before winter until plants began encountering freezing weather.

Relevance: This article relates to the evolution unit, and how organisms through natural selection are able to adapt to new climatic conditions. Before flowering plants were introduced to the freezing temperature of winter, they had to adapt to droughts. Through natural selection plants with the ability to drop their leaves and regrow them, or plants that had a finer circulatory system, or plants that had the ability to die and regrow again were best suited to these drought conditions. So because these plants were better suited to their environment, they were able to live longer and pass these traits on to more offspring than plants without these traits. As plants were able to slowly spread to higher latitudes, these traits began to be useful. But again natural selection came into play, so plants that were able to drop their leaves earlier and earlier before winter were able to survive better than plants that would drop their leaves to late. So through natural selection, plants in higher latitudes have traits that allow them to survive through the winter. This article is an example of how natural selection can help populations of organisms evolve.

Ancestors' exposure to DDT may contribute to obesity, study says

Written by Tony Barboza
Published: October 23, 2013
Link: http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-obesity-ddt-ancestors-pesticides-20131023,0,6712051.story#axzz2qD97hbaX

Summary:
Exposure to the pesticide DDT could be a factor in high levels of obesity indirectly. Scientists have injected DDT into pregnant rats and observed that the offspring of do not have a change in the level of obesity, but the third generation of rats have shown dramatically higher levels of fat and weight gain even though they were not exposed to the pesticide themselves. Scientists then observed the third generation rats and found out that the chemicals known as endocrine disruptors(fungicides, dioxin and bisphenol-A, or BPA) can alter the molecular processes around their DNA by turning genes on or off and be passed down the generations. The gene altering can result in kidney disease, obesity, or ovarian disease. Recently, the World Health Organization and other global health groups have backed using the insecticide to control mosquitoes in countries with high rates of malaria because of the concern for people in the future.

Relevance:
This article is relevant to studies in class because this article discusses about gene regulation inside multicellular organisms. In Chapter 13. we learned about the regulation of genes in eukaryotes. When transcription factors are introduced to certain chemical signals, such as the endocrine disruptors, then they are activated or deactivated. This affects gene expression as certain genes are activated or deactivated, which can lead to the certain disorders such as obesity or kidney disease 

'Nutcracker Man' Ate Tiger Nuts

Author: Charles Q. Choi

Date of Publication: January 8, 2014

Link: http://www.livescience.com/42433-nutcracker-man-ate-tiger-nuts.html

Summary:

The "Nutcracker Man" is an extinct relative of humans, earning its nickname from its huge jaw and giant molars.  Officially named the paranthropus boisei, they lived around 1.4 million to 2.4 million years ago alongside humans across East Africa.  It was assumed that the P. boisei ate seeds, nuts, and other tough foods but their teeth did not support that.  After a study of the teeth of the P. boisei had been completed, the results suggested that the P. boisei actually fed on softer foods, and that they largely depended on C4 plants, such as grasses and sedges to sustain life.  A huge question was whether or not such foods could be nutritious enough for a hominin with a large brain and medium sized body.  To solve this question, paleoanthropologist Gabriele Macho studied one year old baboons within similar environments of the P. boisei.  A huge reason on why one year old baboons were chose is because of the fact they required more nutrition than adults and therefore might have had a closer diet requirements of a large brained hominin than an adult baboon.  It turns out that one year old baboons eat large numbers of C4 plants known as tiger nuts, which are grass bulbs that contain sufficiently high amounts of vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids all important to the hominin brain.  Based on the amount of time it took for baboons to gather the tiger nuts, it was estimated that because of their superior manual dexterity, the P. boisei could gather the tiger nuts just as fast as adult baboons and at least twice as fast as young baboons.  Tiger nuts are rich in abrasive starches and so the P. boisei would have to chew on them for a long time in order to fully digest them.  This may be why the anatomy of the organism is unusual because the features of its jaws and teeth are results of not eating hard foods but repetitive chewing.  While 80% of their diet was from the tiger nuts, the P. boisei most likely supplemented the rest of their diets with fruits and invertebrates.

Relevance:

This article relates to the evolution unit and more specifically how natural selection helps organisms adapt to their environments and allows them to survive by choosing certain characteristics and traits.  In this situation, it was a mystery on how the P. boisei were able to survive a million years since the C4 plants they ate most likely did not have enough nutrients to nourish a hominin with a large brain and medium sized body.  After it was known that the tiger nuts held enough nutrients that could sustain such an organism, the only problem would be finding a way to digest it since it contained abrasive starches.  Natural selection must have selected the large jaw trait so that the P. boisei would be able to slowly grind the tiger nuts down into digestible pieces so they could receive the necessary calories they needed to survive.  With, natural selection's help, these organisms were able to survive a million years because of the fact that they were able to evolve their teeth to survive and adapt in their environment.

Islands make animals tamer

Francesca Sajedi

Author: Ed Yong 

Date Published: January 8th, 2014

URL: http://www.nature.com/news/islands-make-animals-tamer-1.14462

Summary:

        

William Cooper Jr. of Indiana University has tested 66 different species of lizards from around the world to test Charles Darwin's idea. Darwin's idea was that when animals live on a remote island with no predators they be come tamed. When Darwin went to the Galapagos Islands, he made note of how unafraid of people the animals are even to the extent that he said that “a gun is here almost superfluous”. He swatted at birds with his hat, pulled the tails of the iguanas and sat on giant tortoises and it didn't make them run away.  These are Darwin’s ideas that Cooper used.

Cooper showed his idea that when there are no predators on the island you have an easier time approaching them, but when a predator is introduced the animal is faster to run away from you. He got data from the Eurasian lizard all the way to the Galapagos marine iguana.  Cooper took an old idea and showed evidence for it. His results showed that island lizards are much more human approachable then mainland ones. The further the island is away from the main land the easier it is to approach them. These are what the results were and what they showed.

Cooper also showed that different lizard species, even when the lizards are closely related have different behaviors of escaping depending on where they live.  Also, the lizards with skittish behavior where predators are not abundant will be expected to die down due to natural selection. Especially when there are limited resources because the skittish ones would be afraid of the other ones. These are ways that natural selection happens in the wild.                  

Relevance: 

This article relates to our evolution unit because it talks about a real world example of natural selection and how populations adapt to their environments. All the species of lizards Cooper tested on the islands were closely related to the closest mainland ones that he tested. Some how the ones from the mainland spread to the near by islands. Once the couple of them got to one of the islands the population started to grow and change after each generation. Eventually, they became less scared of different things approaching them because there were no predators that they had to worry about. The idea that the further away the island is from the mainland the approachability is higher is shown in this article. This happens because the lizard goes to the nearest island and the population adapts, then a predator comes and a group goes to the next nearest island where there may be no predators. The population becomes more docile and this process keeps on happening. Also the idea of natural selection was mentioned. Cooper thought that the more skittish of the population where the environment has limited resources and no predators will die out and the population will all be tolerant to things touching and/or walking up to them. The skittish ones will die out because the environment needs populations that will not be scared of others who are trying to use their limited resources. Copper shows what we have been talking about in class in the real world.   

Mutant Petunias Sing the Blues

Summary:

Despite its rarity in nature, blue petunias are one of the most sought over flowers by gardeners. Researchers are finally beginning to understand the genetics behind this vividly colored plant. Previously unknown to scientists, in healthy petunias there is a “cellular pump.” This pump brings a large amount of acid to the vacuoles in the plant cells. Vacuoles are special compartments in the cytoplasm (of a cell) where the acid is stored. The “cellular pump” is made out of two proteins working together, and is extremely reliable. Because of its ability to deliver acid for a longer amount of time than other plant pumps, the flower is highly acidic and has a vibrant reddish-violet color. However, mutate petunias contain genes that disables the pump. Because the disabled pump is no longer delivering the huge amount of acid as it typically does, the mutate plants are much less acidic. Therefore, they turn a bluish color, instead of the typical reddish-violet color. These unique flowers are difficult to find in nature due to their coloring. The blue petals do not attract as many insects (for pollination) as its sister plant, thus placing them at an evolutionary disadvantage. Since it is the “survival of the fittest” in nature, the wild blue petunias have nearly died out. Nowadays, most of these vividly colored plants can only be found at the plant breeders. The discovery of this pump opens a huge window of opportunities for researchers. By changing the amount of acid in a plant, scientists can manipulate the taste and color of other plants.

Relevance:

This relates to our seventh unit about the evolution of life, and touches upon the subject of  molecular genetics. To have such a vivid blue color on the petals of the petunias, the plants must have mutate genes. In unit six, we learned that a mutation is a change in genetic information. Therefore, a blue petunia must have slightly different genes compared to its reddish- violet sister plant. This difference is what causes the cellular pump to be deactivated, and thus causing a different acidity of the plant (which causes the unique blue coloring). In our seventh unit, natural selection was a major topic. It is the idea that only the fittest survive and reproduce. Because of the coloring of the blue petunia, the plant is unable to attract many insect. Insects are vital for the reproduction of the plant because they pollinate the petunia. Because of this “evolutionary disadvantage,” blue petunia are extremely hard to find in nature because they have all died out. It is only because of human intervention and our artificial breeding that they are still a preserved species.

Citation:

Author:

Douglas Quenqua

Date of Publication:

January 6, 2014

Article Link: 

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/07/science/mutant-petunias-sing-the-blues.html?ref=science

Picture of a blue petunia:

UH Biologist hopes to predict antibiotic resistance

 

Akhila Sonti

Author: University of Houston

Date published: December 22, 2013

Summary:

A university of Houston biologist hopes to one day be able to isolate a bacterial pathogen(bacteria that cause bacterial infection, especially in humans) and predict the probability that it will become resistant to an antibiotic. Associate professor Timothy Cooper and his team are studying the causes and consequences of bacterial evolution because better understanding of the physiological and genetic bases of evolution is important in medicine (vaccine and antibiotic design) and biotechnology.“By studying how generations of bacteria evolve over time, we are learning ways to predict the outcome of the changes and to understand what drives the differences in the way strains of bacteria evolve," Cooper said. The study of bacterial evolution will impact medical care by making them able to identify and predict the evolutionary paths of bacteria and the refinements in the adaptations that they form. Certain "winners" or "losers" among the many variants in the bacterial populations are determined by their ability to evolve in that they are either improved or become extinct. Being able to predict these "winners" and "losers" gives some predictability to evolution in bacteria which can help predict things like antibiotic resistance which is very helpful and useful in the field of medicine with vaccine and antibiotic design. Cooper's research with the evolvability of bacteria began with E.Coli in with the first petri dish of fast growing bacteria. His team grew the initial bacteria in a petri dish and took a sample of it to grow in a test tube with fresh media. They continued that same process day after day with the bacterial population growing and sample being taken from each test tube. Now, Cooper has a set experimental population that evolved for more than 7000 generations (experimentally). This allowed him to study the evolution of the bacteria over this period of time and track back what had happened to the strain of bacteria overtime. In this experiment a sample of each evolving population is frozen to create a living fossil record every 500 generations which is actually every two months. This allows the biologists to compare the past and future populations which involves genome sequencing because as the populations evolve, genetic changes occur and genome sequencing is the way to look at those changes. Direct study of the phenomenon of evolvability showed how big of an impact it has on evolution and the natural population.

URL: http://www.yourhoustonnews.com/fort_bend/news/uh-biologist-hopes-to-predict-antibiotic-resistance/article_9af0fffc-6906-11e3-b209-001a4bcf887a.html

Relevance: 

In class we talked about and studied about how evolution of bacteria and bacteria developing resistance towards antibiotics was becoming a major issue in the field of medicine and vaccine design. This article was all about that and the biologists were trying to figure out, as many other biologists did, the evolution of bacteria to help them design antibiotics and vaccines that will actually work and will be killing the bacteria so that they are useful in the field of medicine. We also learned that by studying the fossils of any species, we can learn how they evolved over time into the species that they are now and what changes occured in each generation that led to the certain structure or adaptations that the organism possesses now. In this article they made live fossils of bacteria by freezing the old samples and compared the old and new to see how it evolved. Genome sequencing, as we learned, is the way to recognize changes or mutations in an organism's DNA sequence and theses biologists used this process to see how the bacteria evolved over time. Everything mentioned in this article is connected to what we have learned in class and ties back to the main goal of this study and experiment; being able to predict the evolutionary biology of bacteria to make useful vaccines and antibiotics.